Dahoe AE — Curriculum Hydrogen Safety Engineering

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

The safety of hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Educational and training programmes in hydrogen safety . . . . . . . . .
The role of hydrogen safety education in the transition towards a hydrogen economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering . . . . . .
Assessment of the need for hydrogen safety education and formation of a market of potential trainees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e-Learning, the European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, the Joint European Summer School on Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technology, and, the Master of Science in Hydrogen Safety Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 BASIC MODULES
2.1

2.2

MODULE THERMODYNAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.1 Fundamental concepts and rst principles (U: 6 hrs) . .
2.1.3.2 Volumetric properties of a pure substance (U: 6 hrs) . .
2.1.3.3 The rst law of thermodynamics (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . .
2.1.3.4 The rst law of thermodynamics and ow processes (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.5 The second law of thermodynamics (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . .
2.1.3.6 The second law of thermodynamics and ow processes (U:
6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.7 The rst and second law of thermodynamics, and chemically reacting systems (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.8 Phase equilibrium (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.9 Thermodynamics and electrochemistry (U: 4 hrs) . . . .
MODULE CHEMICAL KINETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.1 The rates of chemical reactions (U: 6 hrs; G: 4 hrs) . . .
2.2.3.2 The kinetics of complex reactions (U: 6 hrs; G: 4 hrs) . .
2.2.3.3 Surface reactions (U: 6hrs; G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.4 Application of sensitivity analysis to reaction mechanisms (G: 6hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.2.3.5

2.3

2.4

2.5

Reduction of complex reaction systems to simpler reaction mechanisms (G: 6hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 2.2.3.6 Chemical kinetics and the detonation of combustible mixtures (G: 5hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 MODULE FLUID DYNAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 2.3.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 2.3.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 2.3.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 2.3.3.1 Fluid statics (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 2.3.3.2 Kinematics of the ow eld (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
27 2.3.3.3 Kinematics of incompressible potential ow (U: 8 hrs) .
28 2.3.3.4 Kinematics of compressible ow (U: 8 hrs) . . . . . . . .
30 2.3.3.5 Incompressible laminar viscous ow (U: 8 hrs) . . . . . .
30 2.3.3.6 Mathematical models of uid motion (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) 32 2.3.3.7 Dimensional analysis and similitude (U: 4 hrs; G: 3 hrs) 33 2.3.3.8 Incompressible turbulent ow (U: 12 hrs, G: 9 hrs) . . .
33 2.3.3.9 Waves in uids and the stability of uid ow (U: 8 hrs, G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 2.3.3.10 Compressible turbulent ow (G: 8 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
35 MODULE HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 2.4.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 2.4.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 2.4.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 2.4.3.1 Basic modes of heat transfer and particular laws (U: 5 hrs) 36 2.4.3.2 Isothermal mass transfer (U: 5 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 2.4.3.3 Heat conduction (U: 12 hrs; G: 9 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
37 2.4.3.4 Convection heat transfer (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . .
38 2.4.3.5 Forced convection (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
38 2.4.3.6 Natural convection (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
39 2.4.3.7 Heat Transfer with Phase Change (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) .
39 2.4.3.8 Radiation heat transfer (U: 12 hrs; G: 9 hrs) . . . . . . .
40 2.4.3.9 Simultaneous heat and mass transfer (U: 8 hrs; G: 6 hrs) 41 MODULE SOLID MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41 2.5.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.3.1 Analysis of stress (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.3.2 Deformation and strain (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.3.3 Tension and compression (U: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 2.5.3.4 Statically indeterminate force systems (U: 4 hrs) . . . .
43 2.5.3.5 Thin walled pressure vessels (U: 2 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
43 2.5.3.6 Direct shear stresses (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43 2.5.3.7 Torsion (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43 2.5.3.8 Shearing force and bending moment (U: 4 hrs) . . . . .
43 2.5.3.9 Centroids, moments of inertia, and products of inertia of plane areas (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43 2.5.3.10 Stresses in beams (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.5.3.11 Elastic deection of beams: double integration method (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3.12 Statically indeterminate elastic beams (U: 4 hrs) . . . .
2.5.3.13 Special topics in elastic beam theory (U: 4 hrs) . . . . .
2.5.3.14 Plastic deformation of beams (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3.15 Columns (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3.16 Strain energy methods (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3.17 Combined stresses (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3.18 Members subject to combined loadings (U: 4 hrs) . . . .

3 FUNDAMENTAL MODULES
3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

MODULE HYDROGEN AS AN ENERGY CARRIER . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.1 Introduction to hydrogen as an energy carrier (U: 2 hrs;
G: 2 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.2 Introduction to hydrogen applications and case studies (U: 5 hrs; G: 5 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.3 Equipment for hydrogen applications (U: 5 hrs; G: 5 hrs) 3.1.3.4 Possible accident scenarios (U: 2 hrs; G: 2 hrs) . . . . .
3.1.3.5 Denitions and overview of phenomena and methodologies related to hydrogen safety (U: 3 hrs; G: 3 hrs) . . .
MODULE FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROGEN SAFETY . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.1 Hydrogen properties (U: 10 hrs; G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.2 Compatibility of metallic materials with hydrogen (U: 6 hrs; G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.3 Hydrogen thermo-chemistry (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.4 Governing equations of multi-component reacting ows (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.5 Premixed ames (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.6 Diusion ames (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.7 Partially premixed ames (G: 2 hr) . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.8 Turbulent premixed combustion (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.9 Turbulent non-premixed combustion (G: 6 hrs) . . . . .
3.2.3.10 Ignition and burning of liquids and solids (G: 8 hrs) . . .
3.2.3.11 Fire through porous media (G: 2 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . .
MODULE RELEASES, MIXING AND DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3.1 Fundamentals of hydrogen release and mixing (G: 4 hrs) 3.3.3.2 Handling hydrogen releases (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . .
MODULE HYDROGEN IGNITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.4.2
3.4.3
3.5

3.6

PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54 3.4.3.1 Hydrogen ignition properties and ignition sources (G: 3 hrs) 55 3.4.3.2 Prevention of hydrogen ignition (G: 3 hrs) . . . . . . . .
55 MODULE HYDROGEN FIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55 3.5.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55 3.5.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.5.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.5.3.1 Fundamentals of hydrogen res (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . .
56 MODULE EXPLOSIONS: DEFLAGRATIONS AND DETONATIONS .
56 3.6.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.6.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.6.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.6.3.1 Deagrations (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 3.6.3.2 Detonations (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57 3.6.3.3 Transitional hydrogen explosion phenomena (G: 6 hrs) .
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4 APPLIED MODULES
4.1

4.2

4.3

MODULE FIRE AND EXPLOSION EFFECTS ON PEOPLE, STRUCTURES AND THE ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.1 Thermal eects of hydrogen combustion (G: 4 hrs) . . .
4.1.3.2 Blast waves (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.3 Calculation of pressure eects of explosions (G: 4 hrs) .
4.1.3.4 Structural response, fragmentation and missile eects (G:
4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.5 Fracture mechanics (U: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MODULE ACCIDENT PREVENTION AND MITIGATION . . . . . . .
4.2.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.1 Prevention, protection and mitigation (G: 4 hrs) . . . . .
4.2.3.2 Basic phenomena underpinning mitigation technologies (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.3 Standards, regulations and good practices related to hydrogen safety (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.4 Inertisation (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.5 Containment (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.6 Explosion venting (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.7 Flame arresters and detonation arresters (G: 4 hrs) . . .
MODULE COMPUTATIONAL HYDROGEN SAFETY ENGINEERING 4.3.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3.1 Introduction to CFD (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.3.3.2

4.4

Introduction to thermodynamic and kinetic modeling (G:
6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63 4.3.3.3 Mathematical models in uid dynamics (G: 6 hrs) . . . .
63 4.3.3.4 Finite Dierence Method (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . .
64 4.3.3.5 Solution of the generic transport equation (G: 6 hrs) . .
64 4.3.3.6 Solution of weakly compressible Navier-Stokes equations (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64 4.3.3.7 Solution of compressible Navier-Stokes equations (G: 6 hrs) 64 4.3.3.8 Turbulent ow modeling (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 4.3.3.9 Combustion modeling (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 4.3.3.10 High speed reactive ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 4.3.3.11 Modeling of hydrogen-air diusion ames and turbulenceradiation interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 4.3.3.12 Modeling of liquid hydrogen pool res . . . . . . . . . .
66 4.3.3.13 Multiphase ows (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 4.3.3.14 Special topics (G: 6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 MODULE RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 4.4.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67 4.4.2 PREREQUISITE MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67 4.4.3 CONTENTS OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67 4.4.3.1 General risk assessment and protective measures for hazardous materials processing and handling (G: 6 hrs) . . .
67 4.4.3.2 Regulations, codes and standards (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . .
67 4.4.3.3 Risk assessment methodologies (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . .
68 4.4.3.4 Hazard identication and scenario development (G: 6 hrs) 69 4.4.3.5 Eect analysis of hydrogen accidents (G: 6 hrs) . . . . .
69 4.4.3.6 Vulnerability analysis (G: 4 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70 4.4.3.7 Risk reduction and control in the hydrogen economy (G:
6 hrs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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5

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1

The safety of hydrogen

The safety of hydrogen is known to be of vital importance to the onset and further development of the hydrogen economy. The development and introduction of hydrogen technologies, as well as the level of public acceptance of hydrogen applications, are presently being constrained by safety barriers. Hydrogen is perceived to be dangerous because it has some properties that make its behaviour during accidents dierent from that of most other combustible gases. It may cause material embrittlement and diuses more easily through many conventional materials used for pipelines and vessels. Gaps that are normally small enough to seal other gases safely are found to leak hydrogen profusely. Unlike other combustible gases, it has a Joule-Thompson inversion temperature (i.e. the temperature above which the Joule-Thompson coecient becomes negative and expansion leads to warming instead of cooling) which is well below that of many applications involving gaseous hydrogen. This makes hydrogen more susceptible to ignition after sudden releases from high pressure containment. When hydrogen's greatest safety asset, buoyancy, is not properly taken into account in the design of infrastructures and technologies for production, storage, transportation and utilisation, it becomes more dangerous than conventional fuels such as gasoline, LPG and natural gas. Many countries' building codes, for example, require garages to have ventilation openings near the ground to remove gasoline vapour, but high-level ventilation is not always addressed.
As a result, even very slow releases of hydrogen in such buildings will inevitably lead to the formation of an explosive mixture, initially at the ceiling-level. The safety and combustion literature indicates that releases of hydrogen are more likely to cause explosions than releases of today's fossil fuels do. Moreover, combustion insights have revealed that burning behaviour becomes far less benign when the limiting reactant is also the more mobile constituent of a combustible mixture [1]. Owing to the extreme lightness of the molecule, this is particularly true with hydrogen. A mixture of hydrogen with air has a lower ammability limit which is higher than that of LPG (1.7% [2]) or gasoline (1.0% [2]), but the ammable range is very wide (4-75%) [2]. In the concentration range of 15-45%, the ignition energy of hydrogen is one-tenth of that of gasoline and the quenching gap, i.e. the smallest spacing through which a ame can propagate, is considerably smaller for hydrogen (0.61 mm [3]) than for today's fossil fuels (2.0 mm for methane, 1.8 mm for ethane and propane [3]). This implies that requirements for mitigation, such as ame arrestors and similar equipment, must be more stringent.
For many decades, hydrogen has been used extensively in the process industries (e.g.
reneries and ammonia synthesis) and experience has shown that it can be handled safely in industrial applications as long as appropriate standards, regulations and best practices 6

are being followed. This is particularly true for the nuclear industry, where the high safety standards have resulted in the development of sophisticated hydrogen mitigation technologies [4]. Interestingly, these technologies rely on the same anomalous properties, such as the large diusivity and extreme lightness that make hydrogen so dierent compared to conventional fuels. For example, these properties are used to preclude the formation of ammable mixtures after accidental hydrogen releases, and to prevent further development towards more dangerous concentrations, once the ammability limit is exceeded (hydrogen removal by buoyancy, application of catalytic re-combiners, or benign burns, dilution by mixing with an inert gas, e.g. steam). This experience, however, is very specic and cannot easily be transferred to the daily use of new hydrogen technologies by the general public. Firstly, because new technologies involve the use of hydrogen under circumstances that are not yet addressed by research, or taken into account by existing codes and recommended practices. For example, vehicle demonstration projects by manufacturers involve the use of hydrogen as a compressed gas at extremely high pressures (over 350 bar), or, in liqueed form at an extremely low temperature (-253 ◦ C). There is no precedent for the safe handling of hydrogen by the general public at such conditions and current codes and standards for hydrogen were not written with vehicle fueling in mind.
Secondly, in industries, hydrogen is handled by people who received specic training at a professional level, and, installations involving hydrogen are subject to professional safety management and inspection. The hydrogen economy, on the other hand, involves the use of hydrogen technologies by general consumers and a similar dedication to safety, e.g.
training general consumers to a professional level, would become impractical. The safety of hydrogen technologies and applications must therefore be ensured before entering the consumer market.
Presently, public acceptance and understanding of the safety of hydrogen is such that accidents with hydrogen not only cause resistance to its use. Accidents also cause people to disregard social, economic, political and environmental improvements that may result from a hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is currently being produced from fossil fuels, particularly from natural gas by steam reforming. But it can also be produced from a variety of other sources (e.g. nuclear, geothermal, solar, wind, hydroelectric plants, biomass, etc.), some of which can operate at large and small scale in areas that are currently suffering fuel poverty (i.e. areas where the cost of energy consumes more than 10% of the household budget). The replacement of fossil fuels by hydrogen from alternative sources will not only benet people in fuel poverty areas by reducing their dependency on the diminishing resource of imported fossil fuels  it might also enable fossil fuel importing economies to become leading exporters of hydrogen [5]. The consequential demand for ever increasing quantities of hydrogen, and the possibility of producing hydrogen in fuel poverty areas will lead to social improvement by employment opportunities [5]. The replacement of fossil fuels by hydrogen also contributes to averting disastrous eects from pollutant emissions and global warming. It is well-known that combustion products from fossil fuels cause health problems and acid rain due to emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and other local air pollutants. Continued fossil fuel consumption will not only increase the number of pollution related deaths in cities like Delhi, Beijing and Mexico City [5], but also the magnitude of problems involving reduced agricultural productivity and the loss of biodiversity [5]. There is also an increasing scientic community which has come to the belief that the use of fossil fuels is causing the world's climate to change because of carbon dioxide emissions [5]. Hydrogen is a clean fuel with no carbon dioxide emissions and can be produced by carbon-free or 7

carbon-neutral processes. When utilised in combustion processes, it produces water only, and reduced amounts of nitrogen oxides.
1.2

Educational and training programmes in hydrogen safety

Educational and training programmes in hydrogen safety are considered to be a key instrument in lifting barriers imposed by the safety of hydrogen. Owing to the impracticality of training general consumers to a professional level in hydrogen safety, such training programmes should primarily target professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods, systems, regulations and project management in the hydrogen economy. Between this community of scientic and engineering professionals, including entrepreneurs developing hydrogen technologies, and general consumers of hydrogen applications, there is another group of vital importance to the successful introduction of hydrogen into our social infrastructure that needs to be targeted as well. These are the educators, local regulators, insurers, re brigades and rescue personnel, investors, and public service ocials. Their involvement is indispensable to the acceptance and use of the new technology by the general public, and hence a consolidated consumer market as the principal driving force behind the hydrogen economy. Without their involvement there will be no transition from our present fossil-fuel economy into a sustainable one based on hydrogen. With this in mind, the European Network of Excellence `Safety of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier' (NoE HySafe) has begun to establish the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety.
The e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety is part of the dissemination cluster of the NoE HySafe, whose objectives are [6, 7]: (i) to achieve common understanding and common approaches for addressing hydrogen safety issues; (ii) to integrate experience and knowledge within industrial organisations familiar with hydrogen processing technology and research organisations with facilities for experimental research and exploitation of results from numerical prediction tools; (iii) to integrate and harmonise the fragmented research base; (iv) to provide contributions based on safety and risk studies to EU-legal requirements, standards, codes of practice and guidelines; (v) to support education and training in hydrogen safety to achieve an improved technical culture for the safe handling of hydrogen as an energy carrier. To establish the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety, the following activities were employed: (i) development of an international curriculum on hydrogen safety engineering; (ii) coherent implementation of teaching/learning on hydrogen safety into existing courses and modules; (iii) development of new courses and modules, including optional modules for existing safety courses; (iv) joint training exploiting dierent modes of education: short courses, summer schools, block-releases, continuous professional development courses, etc.; (v) creation of a pool of specialists from both academic and non-academic institutions able to deliver teaching on hydrogen safety engineering at the highest level by introduction of latest research results into the educational process; (vi) promotion of academic mobility programmes, e.g. by integration of regional academic programmes into a common European course on hydrogen safety engineering with the possibility to distribute course modules in dierent countries; (vii) joint supervision of research (PhD) students; (viii) creation of a database of organisations working in hydrogen industry to form a market of potential trainees and to disseminate the results from mutual activities of the network; (ix) and the introduction of joint distance 8

teaching/learning courses in hydrogen safety on the international market.
Due to the absence of a curriculum on the subject, a substantial eort is being devoted to the development of an International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering as a rst step in the establishment of the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety. The development of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering is led by the University of Ulster and carried out in cooperation with international partners from four other universities (Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain; University of Pisa, Italy; Warsaw University of Technology, Poland; University of Calgary, Canada), three research institutions (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and Forschungszentrum Juelich, Germany;
Building Research Establishment, United Kingdom), one enterprise (GexCon, Norway) and one foundation (Det Norske Veritas, Norway). This development is also aided by experts from within the NoE HySafe and external experts from all over the world (see Table 1), representing educational institutions, research organisations, industrial corporations and governmental bodies. This report exposes the current structure of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering, the motivation behind it, and further steps in the development of a system of hydrogen safety education and training are described.
Table 1: List of contributors to the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering.

Adams, P.
Amyotte, P.R.
Baraldi, D.
Barthelemy, H.
Bauwens, L.
Bell, J.B.
Bengaouer, A.
Bjerketvedt, D.
Bradley, D.
van den Braken - van Leersum, A.M.
Breitung, W.
Calhoun, D.
Cant, R.S.
Carcassi, M.
Ciccarelli G.
Crespo, A.
Dahoe, A.E.
Dhanasekaran, P.C.
Djukic, M.
Donze, M.
Dorofeev, S.B.
Eckho, R.K.
Engebo, A.

Volvo Technology
Dalhousie University
The European Commission's Joint Research Center Air Liquide University of Calgary Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories Commissariat a l Energie Atomique Telemark University University of Leeds Akzo-Nobel Safety Services

Sweden
Canada
The Netherlands

Institut fur Kern- und Energietechnik,
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Commissariat a l Energie Atomique University of Cambridge University of Pisa Queens University Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid University of Ulster University of Cambridge University of Belgrade Delft University of Technology FM Global University of Bergen Det Norske Veritas

Germany

9

France
Canada
United States of America
France
Norway United Kingdom The Netherlands

France
United Kingdom
Italy
Canada
Spain
United Kingdom United Kingdom Serbia The Netherlands United States of America Norway Norway

Fairweather, M.
Faudou, J.-Y.
Gallego, E.
Garcia, J.
Glowacki, B.A.
Goodwin, D.G.
Groethe, M.
Hanjalic, K.
Hansen, O.
Haugom, G.-P.
Hawksworth, S.
Hayashi, K.
Hirano, T.
Hochgreb, S.
Huston, D.R.
Irvine, J.T.S.
Jordan, T.
Keller, J.O.
Kirillov, I.
Komen, E.
Kotchourko A.
Kuhl, A.L.
Kumar, S.
LaChance, J.
Law, C.K.
Ledin, H.S.
Lee, J.H.S.
Lelyakin, A.
Lemkowitz, S.M.
Linderoth, S.
Lipatnikov, A.N.
Makarov, D.V.
Makhviladze, G.
Marangon, A.
Martinfuertes, F.
Migoya, E.
Molkov, V.V.
Moretto, P.
Newsholme, G.
Nilsen, S.

University of Leeds
Air Liquide
Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid University of Cambridge California Institute of Technology Stanford Research Institute Delft University of Technology GexCon Det Norske Veritas Health and Safety Laboratory Aoyama Gakuin University Chiba Institute of Science University of Cambridge University of Vermont University of St Andrews Institut fur Kern- und Energietechnik, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Sandia National Laboratory Kurchatov Institute Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group (NRG) Institut fur Kern- und Energietechnik, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories Building Research Establishment Sandia National Laboratories Princeton University Health and Safety Laboratory McGill University Institut fur Kern- und Energietechnik, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Delft University of Technology Technical University of Denmark Chalmers University of Technology University of Ulster University of Central Lancashire University of Pisa Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid Universidad Polytecnica de Madrid University of Ulster The European Commission's Joint Research Center Health and Safety Excecutive Statoil

10

United Kingdom
France
Spain
Spain
United Kingdom United States of America United States of America The Netherlands Norway Norway United Kingdom Japan Japan United Kingdom United States of America United Kingdom Germany United States of America Russia The Netherlands Germany United States of America United Kingdom United States of America United States of America United Kingdom Canada Germany The Netherlands Denmark Sweden United Kingdom United Kingdom Italy Spain Spain United Kingdom The Netherlands United Kingdom Norway

Ooms G.
Oran, E.S.
Palliere, H.
Pasman, H.J.
Picken, S.J.
Pegg, M.J.
Quadakkers, W.J.
Quintiere, J.G.
Reinecke, E.-A.
Reiners S.
Roekaerts, D.J.E.M.
Ruiz, A.
Sanderson, W.E.
Schitter, C.
Schmidtchen, U.
Schneider, H.
Serre-Combe, P.
Shebeko, Yu. N.
Sheeld, J.W.
Shepherd, J.E.
Shirvill, L.
Simmie, J.M.
Skjold, T.
Somerday, B.
Steen, M.
Steinberger-Wilckens, R.
Stoecklin, M.
Sunderland, P.
Tam, V.Y.H.
Tchouvelev, A.V.
Teodorczyck, A.
Tomov, R.I.
Tsuruda, T.
Venetsanos, A.G.
Verfondern, K.
Wen, J.X.

Delft University of Technology
Naval Research Laboratory Commissariat a l Energie Atomique Delft University of Technology Texas A & M University Delft University of Technology Dalhousie University Forschungszentrum Juelich University of Maryland Forschungszentrum Juelich Heliocentris Energy Solutions Delft University of Technology US Department of Energy Amgen Inc.
Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW) Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung Fraunhofer Institut für Chemische Technologie Commissariat a l Energie Atomique All-Russian Scientic Research Institute for Fire Protection Missouri University of Science and Technology California Institute of Technology Shell Global Solutions National University of Ireland University of Bergen GexCon Sandia National Laboratories The European Commission's Joint Research Center University of Birmingham

The Netherlands
United States of America
France The Netherlands United States of America The Netherlands Canada Germany United States of America Germany Germany The Netherlands United States of America United States of America Germany Germany

Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW)
University of Maryland British Petroleum Tchouvelev & Associates Warsaw University of Technology University of Cambridge NRIFD National Centre for Scientic Research Demokritos Forschungszentrum Juelich Kingston University London

Germany
United States of America
United Kingdom Canada Poland United Kingdom Japan Greece

11

Germany
France
Russia
United States of America United States of America United Kingdom Ireland Norway Norway United States of America The Netherlands United Kingdom

Germany
United Kingdom

Westbrook, C.K.
Williams, F.A.
Woods, S.S.
Woudstra T.
Wurster R.
Zalosh R.G.
1.3

Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratories
University of California, San Diego NASA Johnson Space Center White Sands Test Facility Delft University of Technology L-B-Systemtechnik Worcester Polytechnic Institute

United States of America
United States of America United States of America The Netherlands Germany United States of America

The role of hydrogen safety education in the transition towards a hydrogen economy

Sucient and well-developed human resources in hydrogen safety and related key areas are of vital importance to the emerging hydrogen economy. With our present fossil-fuel based economy increasingly being replaced by a hydrogen economy, a shortfall in such knowledge capacity will hamper Europe's innovative strength and productivity growth.
A lack of professionals with expert knowledge in hydrogen safety and related key areas will not only impose a serious setback on innovative developments required to propel this transition, but also thwart ongoing eorts to achieve public acceptance of the new technology. Recently, the European Commission identied a shortage of experts in the key disciplines (natural sciences, engineering, technology [810] relevant to hydrogen safety.
The workforce in R&D is presently relatively low, as researchers account for only 5.1 in every thousand of the workforce in Europe, against 7.4 in the US and 8.9 in Japan [10,11].
An even larger discrepancy is observed if one considers only the number of corporate researchers employed in industry: 2.5 in every thousand in Europe, against 7.0 in the US and 6.3 in Japan [9]. Moreover, the number of young people attracted to careers in science and research appears to be decreasing. In the EU, 23% of the people aged between 20 and 29 years are in higher education, compared to 39% in the USA [12]. Knowing that research is a powerful driving force for economic growth, and a continuous supply of a skilled workforce is of paramount importance to the emerging hydrogen economy, this situation calls for drastic improvement.
To explore possibilities for improvement it would be helpful to consider what might have caused this situation in the rst place. Firstly, there are the quality and attractiveness of Europe for investments in research and development in relation to that of other competing knowledge economies. The quality of research, and the number of young people embarking on higher education in natural sciences, engineering, and technology, depend primarily on investments made in R&D-activities. Presently, this amounts to 1.96% of GDP in Europe, against 2.59% in the United States of America, 3.12% in Japan and 2.91% in Korea. The gap between the United States of America and Europe, in particular, is more than 120 billion euro a year [8], with 80% of it due to the dierence in business expenditure in R&D. At this point it is important to notice that the quality of the European research base will not improve, unless larger investments are made in R&D. It has been diagnosed [13] that multinational companies accounting for the greater share of business R&D expenditure, increasingly tend to invest on the basis of a global analysis of possible locations. This results in a growing concentration of transnational R&D expenditure in the United States of America. Moreover, there appears to be a decline in the global attractiveness of Europe as a location for investment R&D as com12

pared to the United States of America. This alarming development could be reversed by improving the quality of the European research base, such that corporate investments in R&D are increased to 3% of GDP in Europe [13]. Secondly, there is the problem of a retiring science and technology workforce that needs to be succeeded by a younger generation of experts. The identied lack of experts in natural sciences, engineering, and technology creates an unstable situation for investment in R&D. This is particularly true if one considers that innovative developments take place over a timespan of several years. No investor will commission research projects to a retiring workforce without a prospect of succession by a capable younger generation. Thirdly, there is the problem of changes in the skill-set sought by employers and investors. The purpose of science and engineering education is to provide the graduate with sucient skills to meet the requirements of the professional career, and a broad enough basis to acquire additional skills as needed. Because of the transitional nature of the hydrogen economy, and the consequential development and implementation of new technologies, the skill-set sought by employers is expected to change more rapidly than ever before. This phenomenon has already manifested itself in the information technology sector, and is anticipated to occur in the hydrogen economy as well. Science and engineering education related to the hydrogen economy must therefore be broad and robust enough, such, that when today's expert-skills have become obsolete, graduates possess the ability to acquire tomorrow's expert-skills. The International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering, aims at tackling these three causes of detriment to Europes research base and innovation strength by extracting the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety and related key areas, and by the rapid dissemination of this knowledge at all levels in higher and further education and training. According to the Strategic Research Agenda [14], which acts as a guide for dening a comprehensive research programme that will mobilise stakeholders and ensure that European competences are at the forefront of science and technology worldwide, education will continue to play a pivotal role in spreading hydrogen applications to the broader public until 2050. In the short term outlook from 2005 to 2015, training and education eorts are needed to build the necessary human resources to lead research and to allow a steady stream of trained scientists and technicians to develop the area. The Workgroup on Cross Cutting Issues [15], dealing primarily with the non-technical barriers to the successful implementation of the deployment strategy for hydrogen and fuel cells in Europe, indicates that educational and training eorts are needed during this period to avoid any dissonances that might hinder the building of consumer and non-technical executive condence. The Workgroup on Cross Cutting Issues [15] has estimated that during the framework 7 period (2007-2013), the educated sta needed may amount to 500 new graduates from postgraduate studies on an annual basis in all of Europe.
1.4

The International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering

The hydrogen economy requires professionals with a postgraduate degree dedicated to hydrogen safety, which is a subset of the aforementioned 500 new graduates. A preliminary study (see Section 1.5) indicates that this subset amounts to 119 graduates on an annual basis. Because graduates in hydrogen safety will be involved in all aspects of the hydrogen economy to ensure safety, it is important that the following issues are taken into account by the curriculum:
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Figure 1: Hydrogen safety in relation to other branches of engineering science.

• what kind of organisations will employ graduates in hydrogen safety (process industry, energy industry, civil works, aerospace industry, automotive industry, transport and distribution, re and rescue brigades, insurance, teaching institutions, research institutions, legislative bodies, etc.), • at what level will graduates in hydrogen safety operate within the organisation (consulting, manufacture, design, teaching, research, operation, construction, legislation, etc.), and, • which mode of education is the most appropriate to match the skill-set sought at the various levels of engagement within these organisations (undergraduate education, postgraduate degree, continuing professional development, short courses, etc.).
Moreover, the undergraduate programme should be well-rounded in the engineering science core (see Figure 1) and supplemented by topics and additional courses with an emphasis on hydrogen safety. Duplication of educational eorts may be avoided by dening hydrogen safety engineering in relation to other branches of engineering, and crossfertilisation with existing engineering programmes may be achieved by the introduction of topics relevant to hydrogen safety into the engineering science core. The postgraduate programme consists of specialised courses covering the nodes of the HySafe activity matrix shown in Figure 2. Because the topics connected to the nodes in Figure 2 are subject to continuous development as the hydrogen economy evolves, the curriculum needs to be

14

Applications and accident scenarios

Phenomena, hazards, and risks
Standards,
Development and Safety assessment Hydrogen release, Thermal and pressure validation of and missile effects from mixing and and risk analysis guidelines, and legal requirements fires and explosions mitigation techniques distribution

V4

V5

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

Tunnels, parking
and garages

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

Utilisation, portable
and stationary
applications

H2

H2

H2

H2

H2

V1

V2

Production

H2

H2

Transport and
distribution,
refueling stations

H2

Hydrogen storage
(LH2,CGH2)

H1
H2
H3
H4
H5

V3

Figure 2: The Hysafe activity matrix.

comprehensive enough to absorb these changes as new knowledge becomes available.
To comply with the aforementioned requirements, the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering is designed to consist of basic modules, fundamental modules, and applied modules. This approach was inspired by Magnusson et al. [16], who adopted a similar approach for the development of a model curriculum for re safety engineering. The current modular structure is summarised in Table 2, and the current detailed topical content of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering is given in subsequent sections.
The ve basic modules, i.e. Modules Thermodynamics; Chemical Kinetics; Fluid Dynamics; Heat and Mass Transfer; and Solid Mechanics, are intended for undergraduate instruction (although these modules contain topics belonging to the postgraduate level).
They are similar to any other undergraduate course in the respective subject areas, but comprehensive enough to provide a broad basis for dealing with hydrogen safety issues involving hydrogen embrittlement, unscheduled releases of liqueed and gaseous hydrogen, accidental ignition and combustion of hydrogen, etc. The purpose of these modules is twofold. Firstly, to enable the coupling of knowledge relevant to hydrogen safety into existing engineering curricula, and secondly, to support the knowledge framework contained in the fundamental and applied modules.
The six fundamental modules, i.e. Modules Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier; Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety; Releases, Mixing and Dispersion; Hydrogen Ignition; Hydrogen Fires; and Explosions: Deagrations and Detonations, form the backbone of hydrogen safety. While these modules, except for the rst one, are intended for instruction at the postgraduate level, their topical content may also be used to develop teaching materials for undergraduate instruction to supplement existing engineering curricula with courses dedicated to hydrogen safety. The topical content of these modules is connected to the nodes in the HySafe activity matrix. These topics are initially based on the existing literature, and updated continuously as new knowledge becomes available, particularly from the NoE HySafe.
Obviously, the fundamental modules play a pivotal role in the curriculum development as the hydrogen economy evolves: new knowledge enters the curriculum through the 15

Table 2: Structure of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering.
Basic Modules Module Thermodynamics Module Chemical Kinetics Module Fluid Dynamics Module Heat and Mass Transfer Module Solid Mechanics Fundamental Modules Module Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier Module Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Module Releases, Mixing and Dispersion Module Hydrogen Ignition Module Hydrogen Fires Module Explosions: Deagrations and Detonations Applied Modules Module Fire and Explosion eects on People, Structures, and the Environment Module Accident Prevention and Mitigation Module Computational Hydrogen Safety Engineering Module Risk Assessment

fundamental modules, and this information is subsequently used to tune the basic and applied modules. Together, these six fundamental modules form the hydrogen safety engineering science core to support the applied modules.
The four applied modules, i.e. Modules Fire and Explosion Eects on People, Structures, and the Environment; Accident Prevention and Mitigation; Computational Hydrogen Safety Engineering; and Risk Assessment, are intended to provide graduates with the skill-set needed to solve hydrogen safety problems. These are postgraduate modules, but their topical content may also be used to develop undergraduate courses on hydrogen safety to complement existing undergraduate engineering curricula. The topics covered by these modules also coincide with the nodes in the HySafe-activity matrix. Like the fundamental modules, the role of these modules is also pivotal in the development of the curriculum. Methodologies and front-line techniques for dealing with hydrogen safety problems are extracted from the HySafe-network and incorporated into these modules.
Modication of these modules due to new information is followed by the tuning and renement of the topical content of the basic and fundamental modules to preserve coherence throughout the entire curriculum.
1.5

Assessment of the need for hydrogen safety education and formation of a market of potential trainees

The development of a curriculum in any branch of engineering would obviously be meaningless without a market of trainees. Since the level of interest in hydrogen safety education primarily depends on the number of people involved in hydrogen related activities, 16

the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety has developed, and maintains a database of organisations working in the hydrogen industry. A rst attempt to use this database to assess the market of potential trainees in hydrogen safety was made by sending a questionnaire to 600 companies and institutions in the database. There were 28 respondents and an analysis of their replies indicates that 119 potential trainees would be interested in hydrogen safety education on an annual basis. This implies that a projected market of 5000 companies and institutions would yield 1000 trainees on an annual basis. As a result, it will be necessary to deploy educational/training resources at a number of universities throughout Europe to meet this demand for hydrogen safety education. Further analysis of the replies indicates that the relative interest in the various modes of hydrogen safety education is as follows: postgraduate certicate (PGC): 10.7%, postgraduate diploma (PGD): 1.5%, master of science (MSc): 29.3%, short course (SC): 42.2%, and continuing professional development (CPD): 16.3%. It was also attempted to resolve the employment pattern, and hence the skill-set sought by employers. Within these 28 companies and institutions the employment pattern appears to be: 1.3% in design, 13.0% in manufacture, 0.9% in legislation, 0.4% in maintenance, 1.1% in installation, 19.0% in research and 19.0% in teaching (these percentages do not sum up to 100% because of the limited set dening the pattern). Given the small size of the catchment population, these outcomes must be considered preliminary. The process of arriving at these results nevertheless illustrates the mechanism of how the market of trainees in hydrogen safety could be assessed, and how the employment pattern of people working in hydrogen related areas, and the skill-set sought by employers might be resolved.
1.6

e-Learning, the European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, the Joint European Summer School on Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technology, and, the Master of Science in Hydrogen Safety Engineering

The European Commission has launched a number of measures [17, 18] to co-ordinate elearning activities with the aim to propel Europe towards becoming the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. Universities are using e-learning as a source of added value for their students, and for providing o-campus, exible, virtual learning through web-based resources. Some universities are entering into strategic partnerships and adopting new business models to serve the changing education market and to face the challenges posed by global competition. From an employer point of view, greater emphasis is being placed on cost savings and on exible, just-in-time education and training, to provide employees with the necessary skills and competence that match changing business needs. Owing to the transitional nature of the hydrogen economy, the continual introduction of new technologies, and the consequential rapid diversication of the skill-set sought by employers, e-learning is expected to become important in providing education and training in hydrogen safety. Because e-learning does not conne trainees to a specic campus location, employees are given maximal opportunity to acquire new skills and competencies while continuing in full-time employment, and to maintain family and domestic commitments. Moreover, e-learning makes it possible for experts working at the forefront of hydrogen safety to deliver teaching on the state-of-the-art in the eld, while continuing their research of scientic endeavour. This is in line with the University of 17

Ulster's aim to promote the further development and expansion of e-learning and blended learning programmes.
While the e-learning market in Europe is estimated at 12 billion euro per year, and is experiencing rapid growth, the lack of good quality e-learning content remains a matter of concern. This is true for well-established subject areas, and even more so for hydrogen safety. To cope with this situation, the European Commission has funded a series of annual European Summer Schools on Hydrogen Safety (HyCourse, contract MSCF-CT2005-029822, 2006-2010) The University of Ulster coordinated four annual four annual summer schools (2006, 2007, 2008, 2008, see: www.hysafe.org/SummerSchool) During each event at least 12 leading experts from all over the world delivered keynote lectures to an international audience of at least 60 researchers. The topics taught included: hydrogen releases, mixing, and dispersion; mechanisms of hydrogen ignition; hydrogen res; deagration, detonation and transitional phenomena; computational modelling in hydrogen safety; thermal, pressure and missile eects from res and explosions; development and validation of mitigation techniques; safety assessment and risk analysis; and standards, guidelines and legal requirements. The nodal points of the HySafe activity matrix were covered from fundamentals to applications following the topical content of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering. Junior researchers were given the opportunity to benet from the experience of leading world-class experts.
Following the successful summer schools under the HyCourse-project, the European Commission continued its support to this work. Co-funding was provided to organise the Joint European Summer School on Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technology (TrainHy, Call FCH-JU-2009-1, Project ID 256703, 2011-2013) via the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) which is a joint agency of the European Commission, and, European Industry and Research Groups. In 2011 and 2012 the University of Birmingham and the Forschungszentrum Juelich, in cooperation with the University of Ulster, the Technical University of Denmark and Heliocentris Gmbh organised two summer school events (see: www.hysafe.org/TrainHyProf).
With hydrogen safety being a novel area, and therefore lacking the prerequisites to prepare a skilled workforce for the technological challenges to come, this approach is considered to be the way forward to create the next generation of researchers and educators in this subject area, and to preserve the life-blood of research. The lecture notes and presentations of the keynote lectures at the European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety and the Joint European Summer School on Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technology are implemented into the distance learning modules of the Master of Science in Hydrogen Safety Engineering oered by the University of Ulster (see: www.hysafe.org/MScHSE).
The module provision of the MSc-programme consists of six modules: Module Principles of Hydrogen Safety, Module Hydrogen Safety Technologies, Module Regulations, Codes and Standards, Module Hydrogen Powered Transport and Infrastructure Safety, Module Progress in Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technologies, and, a Dissertation Module. Since the rst delivery of this course in January 2007 it was attended by an international group of learners from several countries including Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

18

2 BASIC MODULES
2.1

MODULE THERMODYNAMICS

2.1.1

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT

This is a background module in classical thermodynamics and intended for undergraduate instruction only. It is similar to any other undergraduate engineering thermodynamics course, but comprehensive enough to provide a broad basis for dealing with hydrogen safety issues involving hydrogen embrittlement, unscheduled releases of liqueed and gaseous hydrogen, and accidental ignition and combustion of hydrogen. The topics covered by this module are based on the texts by Abbott & Van Ness (1972) [19], Atkins & de Paula (2006) [20], Metz (1976) [21], Moran & Shapiro (2000) [22], Smith, Van Ness & Abbott (2007) [23], and Sonntag, Borgnakke & Van Wylen (2003) [24]. Specic references are given along with the topics.
2.1.2

PREREQUISITE MATTER

Calculus (including linear algebra, complex functions, complex analysis, Laplace transforms, Fourier analysis), ordinary dierential equations, partial dierential equations, vector analysis, tensor analysis, classical mechanics, continuum mechanics, elementary uid dynamics statistical mechanics.
2.1.3

CONTENTS OF THE MODULE

2.1.3.1 Fundamental concepts and rst principles (U: 6 hrs) Contents The three primitive gas laws [20]: Boyle's law (Boyle-Mariotte law), Charles's

law or Gay-Lussac's law, combinend gas law (Boyle-Gay-Lussac's law). Avogrado's hypothesis [20] (equal volumes of ideal or perfect gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles, or molecules). Ideal gas law (adding Avogrado's hypothesis to the combined gas law) [20]. Dalton's law (the pressure exerted by mixtures of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of its constituents) and mixtures of gases [20]. Macroscopic and microscopic point of view. Kinetic theory of gases [20] (postulates: constant random motion, elastic collision, volume occupied by molecules,

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attraction forces between molecules; denition of ideal gas in the light of postulates; definition of real gas in the light of postulates (molecular interactions aect the equation of state [20]); Maxwell's distribution for the speed of molecules [20, 25], calculation of the root-mean-square velocity of molecules [20]; denition of pressure; mechanical equilibrium (the condition of equality of pressure on either side of a movable wall [20]); denition of absolute temperature and Boltzmann's constant; diathermic boundary (a boundary that permits the passage of energy as heat [20]); adiabatic boundary (a boundary that prevents the passage of energy as heat [20]); thermal equilibrium (the condition in which no change of state occurs when two objects are brought in contact through a diathermic boundary [20]); relationship between Boltzmann's constant, universal gas constant and Avogrado's number (Carnot's law [26]); collision frequency [20]; mean free path [20]).
Thermodynamic properties: intensive properties (density, pressure, temperature, internal energy, entropy, chemical potential of a species, mole fraction of a species, mass fraction of a species) and extensive properties (volume, mass, kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy (Joule's law [27]: in a perfect gas the internal energy is a function of the absolute temperature alone), entropy, enthalpy, Helmholtz energy, Gibbs energy). Thermodynamic property tables. State functions. Exact and inexact dierentials. Statement of the thermodynamic laws: Zeroth law of thermodynamics (if A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then C is also in thermal equilibrium with A [20]), First law of thermodynamics (the internal energy of an isolated system is constant [20]; energy dened as the capacity to do work), Second law of thermodynamics (Kelvin's statement: no process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion into work [20], statement in terms of entropy: the entropy of an isolated system increases in the course of spontaneous change [20];
entropy as an indicator of the direction of spontaneous change [20], thermodynamic definition of entropy (concept of irreversibility, concept of availability), relation between entropy and the distribution and dispersal of energy, Boltzmann's denition of entropy, examples of spontaneous change (expansion of gas into a vacuum, conversion of diamond into graphite, the helix-coil transitions in polypeptides, models of origins (propagation of genetic properties, evolution of biological species)), the widespread misinterpretation that the second law of thermodynamics does not permit order to spontaneously arise from disorder (counter-example: the spontaneous formation of snowakes with six-sided crystalline symmetric structure from randomly moving water vapour molecules; reversibility of the transition between water and ice at the melting point; irreversibility of the transition of water to ice below the melting point; irreversibility of the transition of ice to water above the melting point)), Third law of thermodynamics (the entropy of all crystalline substances is zero at zero absolute temperature [20]). Zeroth law of thermodynamics (existence of temperature as an intensive property; existence of an equation of state between temperature, pressure, volume and amount of substance). First law of thermodynamics (existence of total energy as an extensive property consisting of internal energy, potential energy and kinetic energy; isolated systems (systems with a boundary through which neither matter nor energy can be transferred), closed systems (systems with a boundary through which energy can be transferred but matter c